International Journal of Engineering and Management Research

1. Introduction

Reproductive health is an important issue which recently emerged as a matter of increasing concern by development experts, NGOs and government of various developing and developed countries owing to its implications for women's own health, health of their children, family members and socioeconomic development of society as well as population programmes. One of the fundamental components of development is promoting and achieving the health of women, most especially on reproductive health. The World Health Organization (WHO) (2013) sees reproductive health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being in all matters relating to the reproductive system and processes.

The definition was internationally accepted because it recognized that reproductive health affects and is affected by the economic circumstances, education, employment opportunities, family structures, as well as political, religious and legal environment (Roudi-Fahimi & Ashford, 2018). This implies that the most important components of reproductive health include family planning, safe motherhood, safe and satisfying sex, prevention and treatment of reproductive tract infections and sexually transmitted diseases, as well as the decision making power associated with these. One of the significant milestones of the twentieth century in the field of population and development is the recognition of women as equal partners in development efforts in all societies of the world (Odutolu, Adedimeji, Odutolu, Baruwa & Olatidoye, 2023).

By locating women within the context of global development, these conferences have encouraged women to openly discuss issues that affect their status and reproductive health. A major response to this development is a review of programmes and strategies aimed at improving the reproductive health of women (Odutolu, Adedimeji, Odutolu, Baruwa & Olatidoye, 2023). There was to a paradigm shift fired by a growing awareness of the negative health, social and economic consequences of unsafe sexual activity and childbearing, including unintended pregnancies, unsafe abortions, Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs), Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and decreased economic power among women. Hence, women reproductive health care became the focal point of development issues in all countries,

pregnancy but want to ensure adequate spacing for promoting healthy living. Controlling the transmission of STIs not only helps to reduce long-term reproductive morbidities, such as ectopic pregnancy and infertility, but also reduces the likelihood of HIV transmission.

2. Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is to examine the determinants of reproductive health behaviour among female workers in tertiary institutions in Nigeria. Specifically, the study aims to determine the relationship and the extent to which age, educational attainment, marriage, cultural norms and religious beliefs influences female reproductive health behaviour particularly, among female workers in tertiary institutions. It also seeks to explore individual attitudes, perceptions, and levels of awareness regarding reproductive health among female employees, and ultimately recommend strategies to improve reproductive health outcomes and support systems for female workers in Nigerian tertiary institutions.

3. Literature Review

There are several theories on reproductive health behaviour. For this study, two major theories are reviewed. They are in many ways, 71 related to one another, showing understanding of health behaviour which is based on the assumption that people are rational in decision making as regards a given behaviour. They form a basis from which interventions aimed at increasing health behaviour can be developed.

Reproductive health, as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2022), encompasses physical, mental, and social well-being in all matters relating to the reproductive system at all stages of life. In the Nigerian context, reproductive health remains a significant public health concern, especially among women of reproductive age, including female workers in tertiary institutions. This review examines the factors that influence reproductive health behaviour among this group, with emphasis on socio-cultural, economic, institutional, and individual determinants. Cultural beliefs and social norms play a pivotal role in shaping reproductive health behaviour in Nigeria. Studies such as that by Okonofua et al. (2019) highlight how societal expectations and traditional gender roles often limit

Personal beliefs, health literacy, and past experiences heavily influence reproductive health choices. According to a study by Adeyemi and Ayodele (2018), individual factors such as perceived susceptibility to illness, perceived benefits of health services, and confidence in the healthcare system shape whether or not female workers access reproductive health services. Fear of stigma, especially around infertility, contraceptive use, or sexually transmitted infections, can cause women to delay or avoid seeking care altogether. Moreover, mental health issues like stress and burnout, common among academic and administrative staff, can affect reproductive health both directly and indirectly (Nwosu et al., 2022). Gender power dynamics also have a considerable impact. Married female staff may face restrictions from partners regarding family planning or sexual health decisions, despite their professional status (Ajayi et al., 2020). Even within institutions, women may feel less empowered to advocate for their health needs due to hierarchical and patriarchal structures.

Extent to Which Age at Marriage Influences Reproductive Health Behaviour among Female Workers

Age at marriage and women reproductive health behaviour Age at marriage is of particular interest because it marks the transition to adulthood in many societies; the point at which certain options in education, employment, and participation in society are foreclosed; and the beginning of regular socially acceptable time for sexual activity and childbearing (Palamuleni,2021). He stated that age at marriage is one of the most important factors in population dynamics as it affects fertility, mortality and migration. Early marriage is associated with early childbearing, as in most cases particularly in developing countries; the main purpose of marriage is to have children. Early childbearing is also related to low status of women and adverse health risks on the mother and child.

As such, marriage is not only the most predominant context for childbearing but also one of the most important determinants of fertility (Lesthaeghe, Kaufmann & Meekers, 2018). Differences in age at entry into marriage, access to family planning services and their ability to utilize these services effectively and efficiently, economic status of the household (that is possession of wealth to invest on offspring),

On the other hand, societies with late age at first marriage have experienced decreased fertility rates while in traditional populations in 25 Asia and Africa, where age at first marriage is younger, high levels of fertility have been observed ( Week, 2017). Generally, the age at which a woman enters to her first nuptial life is directly related to number of children she will bear, because it affects the length of time she will be at risk of becoming pregnant. Unmarried women may also have children, but majority of childbearing takes place after marriage, making age at marriage a valuable indicator of a woman‘s lifetime fertility (Acharya, 2020).

Socio-Economic Status and Reproductive Health Behaviour of Women

The relationship between socio-economic status and fertility has received much attention both from sociological and economic points of view (Alo, 2015).Alo (2011) asserts that socio-economic status is the outcome of a combination of series of personal characteristics, such as income, educational level, occupation and other factors. Historically, fertility decline in other major regions of the world has been attributed to a complex combination of factors related to the process of urbanization, industrialization and socio-economic development, such precipitating, overlapping and heterogeneous factors, which include education and employment of women outside home, income and religion, among others. Scholars have attempted to explain fertility decline by using as casual explanatory variables a number of socio-economic factors (Takayama, 2021).

Particular interest has been on changing female socio-economic role, which accelerates the decline in fertility in modernizing societies (Alo, Ogunleye & Adetula, 2018). Socio-economic indicators like household income (Kavitha & Audinarayana,2017), urban residence and women‘s employment in skilled work outside the home occupational status and household living conditions, have also proven to be strong predictors of a woman‘s likelihood of utilizing reproductive health services, (Magadi, Madise & Rodrigues, 2020). Studies have reported that the level of family income is one of the influencing factors on the use of contraceptives (Bagheri & Nikbakhesh ,2020).

Educational Attainment and Women Reproductive Health Behaviour

Studies show that educated women get at a late age than non-educated women, and have better access to contraceptives than non-educated women (Alemayehu, Haider & Habte, 2020;). These studies advance arguments regarding reproductive health behaviour of women, as their results found positive associations between community level literacy among women and individual-level contraceptive use, net of an individual woman‘s schooling, Bangladesh.

Often, education is associated with characteristics that might lead a woman to choosing fewer children: literacy skills, greater personal autonomy, and exposure to new values, ideas, and role models. Literacy skills - reading comprehension, in particular - appear to have a pronounced impact on family size. One study found that, among women in South Africa, strong reading comprehension skills, regardless of family income level, affected family size (Carr, 2020). The study also suggests that access to information plays an important role in decision making.

Cultural Norms/Religious Belief and Women Reproductive Health Behaviour

McDermott and O‟Dell (2021) refer to culture as the beliefs, values and practices of the people in a society. Similarly, Arowomole (2020) defines culture as peoples beliefs, practices, attitudes and values ,while Mohd (2015) view it as consisting of peoples beliefs and values. Culture could thus be seen as the practices, beliefs, attitude and values of the people within a given society. Culture is simply the totality of people‘s way of life. Sanderson (2018) in Daramola (2015) defines culture as the total way of life characterizing members of society including tools, knowledge and patterned ways of thinking and acting , learned and shared and are not the direct product of biological inheritance. Basically, culture has five characteristic – it is a system; diverse; shared; learned; and based on symbols.

In general, an individual‘s decision is shaped by the perceived attitudes and behaviours of others in the community (Rimal & Real, 2023). Community norms regarding family size and family planning, then, are likely to influence women‘s own attitudes, and ultimately influence their use of family planning. Studies in other settings have had mixed findings regarding the extent to which community-level norms around family planning and family size affect women‘s use of modern contraceptives (Kaggwa, Diop & Storey, 2018).

Table 1 above showed that respondents between 18 to 30 years were 208 (53.3%), respondents between 31 years and 40 years were 140 (35.9%) and respondents from 41 years and above were 42 (10.8%).

Table 2: Religion Distribution of the Respondents

Source: Authors’ Field Computation (2025)

Table 4.1.3 above showed that Christian respondents were 360 (92.3%), Muslim respondents 22 (5.6%) and non partisan religion respondents were 8 (2.1%).

Table 3: Marital Status Distribution of the Respondents

Source: Authors’ Field Computation (2025)

Table 3 above showed that married respondents were 136 (34.9%), single respondents were 252 (64.6%) and separated respondents were 2 (0.5%).

Table 4: Educational background Distribution of the Respondents

Source: Authors’ Field Computation (2025)

Table 4 above showed that respondents with Ph.D as educational background were 61 (15.6%), respondents with M.Sc were 249 (63.8%), respondents with B.Sc were 71 (18.2%) and OND/NEC respondents were 9 (2.3%).

that Age at marriage can influence the number of children desired, with those marrying later often preferring fewer children with means core of 3.67, that female workers in tertiary institutions who marry later might have better access to healthcare services due to increased education and employment benefits with mean score of 3.64,

Table 6: Extent to which educational attainment affects reproductive health behaviour among female workers in tertiary institutions

The data in Table 4.2.2 showed that the mean of respondents on extent to which educational attainment affects reproductive health behaviour among female workers in tertiary institutions. Given the 2.50 bench mark for acceptance, items 5-8 of the questionnaire has shown above the bench mark indicating that there are significant extent to which educational attainment affects reproductive health behaviour among female workers in tertiary institutions.

The data in Table 4.2.3 showed that the mean of respondents on relationship between cultural norms/ religious beliefs and reproductive health behaviour among female workers in tertiary institutions. Given the 2.50 bench mark for acceptance, items 9-12 of the questionnaire has shown above the bench mark indicating the significant relationship between cultural norms/ religious beliefs and reproductive health behaviour among female workers in tertiary institutions... In summation, the respondents agreed that cultural and religious beliefs can influence attitudes toward contraceptive use, with some groups encouraging large families.

5. Discussion of the Findings

Given the 2.50 bench mark for acceptance, In summary, respondents agreed that women who marry later often have greater awareness and use of modern contraceptive methods compared to those who marry at younger ages with mean score of 3.65, that Older women at marriage may have more health literacy and are more likely to seek antenatal care, postnatal care, and with mean score of 3.74, that Age at marriage can influence the number of children desired, with those marrying later often preferring fewer children with means core of 3.67, that female workers in tertiary institutions who marry later might have better access to healthcare services due to increased education and employment benefits with mean score of 3.64. The result indicated that there is significant extent to which age at marriage influences reproductive health behaviour among female workers in tertiary institutions, majority of the respondents agreed that women who marry later often have greater awareness and use of modern contraceptive methods compared to those who marry at younger ages as older women at marriage may have more health literacy and are more likely to seek antenatal care.

As regards to research question two which is the extent to which educational attainment affects reproductive health behaviour among female workers in tertiary institutions, the result indicated that there are significant extent to which educational attainment affects reproductive health behaviour among female workers in tertiary institutions. respondents agreed that higher educational attainment is linked to better understanding of reproductive health issues, including family planning,

Recommendations

Tertiary institutions should collaborate with health organizations to implement educational programs that emphasize the impact of age at marriage on reproductive health, encouraging informed decisions about marriage timing and family planning. Institutions should incorporate reproductive health education into professional development programs, particularly highlighting the role of educational attainment in fostering positive reproductive health behaviours. Health policymakers should design reproductive health initiatives that respect cultural and religious beliefs while promoting practices that enhance reproductive health outcomes. Culturally sensitive counselling and community engagement can bridge gaps caused by cultural or religious misconceptions.

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AUTHORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS:All of the authors worked together to complete this work. The final manuscript was read and approved by all authors.

ETHICAL STATEMENT AND ACKNOWLEDGMENT: Additionally, we certify that this work is unique and not presently being considered by any other journal for publication. None of the authors have conducted this research work with animals for this paper.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST: The writers have stated that they have no conflicting interests.

STATEMENT OF DATA AVAILABILITY: Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.

DISCLAIMER (ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE): The authors hereby declare that no generative AI tools, including text-to-image generators and large language models (ChatGPT, COPILOT, etc.), were used in the creation or editing of manuscripts.